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• • • Unfree labour is a generic or collective term for those work relations, especially in or history, in which people are employed against their will with the threat of,, (including death),, or other forms of extreme hardship to themselves or members of their families. Unfree labour includes all forms of, and related institutions (e.g.,, and ). Many of these forms of work may be covered by the term forced labour, which is defined by the (ILO) as all involuntary work or service exacted under the menace of a penalty. Convict labourers in Australia in the early 20th century. If payment occurs, it may be in one or more of the following forms: • The payment does not exceed or barely exceeds it; • The payment is in goods which are not desirable and/or cannot be exchanged or are difficult to exchange; or • The payment wholly or mostly consists of cancellation of a debt or liability that was itself coerced, or belongs to someone else. Unfree labour is often more easily instituted and enforced on migrant workers, who have traveled far from their homelands and who are easily identified because of their physical, ethnic, linguistic, or cultural differences from the general population, since they are unable or unlikely to report their conditions to the authorities. According to the, under, workers never keep all of the wealth they create, as some of it goes to the of capitalists.

By contrast with modern (as used by ), the wages offered necessarily represent the of the labour, and any profit (or loss) is also due to other inputs provided, such as,, or risk. The present situation [ ] Unfree labor re-emerged as an issue in the debate about rural development during the years following the end of the Second World War, when a political concern of Keynesian theory was not just (mainly in Europe and Asia) but also planning (in the Third World). A crucial aspect of the ensuing discussion concerned the extent to which different relational forms constituted obstacles to capitalist development, and why. During the 1960s and 1970s unfree labor was regarded as incompatible with capitalist accumulation, and thus an obstacle to economic growth, an interpretation advanced by exponents of the then-dominant semi-feudal thesis. From the 1980s onwards, however, another and very different Marxist view emerged, arguing that evidence from Latin America and India suggested agribusiness enterprises, commercial farmers and rich peasants reproduced, introduced or reintroduced unfree relations. However, recent contributions to this debate have attempted to exclude Marxism from the discussion. These contributions maintain that, because Marxist theory failed to understand the centrality of unfreedom to modern capitalism, a new explanation of this link is needed.

This claim has been questioned by (2014), ‘Debating Capitalist Dynamics and Unfree Labour: A Missing Link?’, The Journal of Development Studies, 50:4, 570–82. He argues that many of these new characteristics are in fact no different from those identified earlier by Marxist theory and that the exclusion of the latter approach from the debate is thus unwarranted.

The (ILO) estimates that at least 12.3 million people are victims of forced labour worldwide; of these, 9.8 million are exploited by private agents and more than 2.4 million are. Other 2.5 million are forced to work by the state or by rebel military groups. From an perspective, countries that allow forced labor are violating as set forth in the Abolition of Forced Labour Convention (C105), one of the fundamental conventions of the ILO. Main article: The and best-known form of unfree labour is, in which individual workers are legally owned throughout their lives, and may be bought, sold or otherwise exchanged by owners, while never or rarely receiving any personal benefit from their labour. Slavery was common in many, including,,,,,,,, as well as many societies in.